Knowledge and technology transfer and adoption
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Research outcomes: Research results and new technologies are communicated and transferred in an appropriate and timely manner across the industry value chain, supporting increased uptake of best-practice and innovative technology. A skilled advisory sector that drives the adoption of new technology. An industry knowledge base that incorporates and makes freely available the most up-to-date production methodologies to industry. Collaborative alliances, partnerships and networks that optimise synergies, integrate knowledge and share best-practices.
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Item Understanding the mechanisms that control the release of a soluble crystalline agrichemical extruded with polymers(2020) Levett, Ian ChristopherNitrogen (N) is an essential element to sustain all life on Earth, yet it also wreaks havoc when in excess. The production of synthetic N fertilisers through the Haber-Bosch process began in the early 1900s and initiated the ‘green revolution’, seeing agricultural productivity soar. These productivity gains support roughly half of the current global population. Yet while heavy application of synthetic N fertilisers ensures crop success, it also leads to harmful environmental losses of 50-70% of the N applied. Such losses damage fresh and coastal aquatic ecosystems through eutrophication and biodiversity loss, reduce air quality, accelerate climate change and lead to numerous human health implications. The human race has doubled the cycling of N through the environment leading to a global challenge. To reduce these environmental nutrient losses, enhanced efficiency fertilisers were developed, including slow- and controlled-release fertilisers and stabilised N fertilisers. These products aim to increase the proportion of N taken up by the crop relative to the amount added, meaning that less fertiliser is required. Slow- and controlled-release products specifically aim to deliver N at a rate to match the crop N uptake curve, while N stabilisers are chemical additives that inhibit urease and nitrification in the soil, reducing leaching of highly mobile nitrate-N and lowering denitrification to gaseous nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrous oxide (N2O) - a potent greenhouse gas. Dicyandiamide (DCD) is a commercial nitrification inhibitor that effectively reduces N losses and can improve crop productivity in temperate climates. However, in tropical soils, microbial metabolism of this molecule results in limited efficacy. This project aimed to improve the efficacy of DCD for tropical agriculture through encapsulation and controlled-release of this soluble, crystalline agrichemical using biodegradable and environmentally friendly polymers. The principle is to protect the DCD from degradation and extend the duration of effective concentration in the soil. Controlled-release DCD pellets were produced through extrusion processing, as a simple, cost-effective, commercially relevant fabrication technique. The polymers tested include thermo-plastic wheat starch (TPS), the bacterial polyester poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) and synthetic polycaprolactone (PCL) as well as blends of PHBV with PCL. DCD was distributed in these polymers through extrusion melt compounding to produce ~3×3 mm cylindrical pellets. The release kinetics were studied and, importantly, the underlying mechanisms that control release were identified and modelled. Much of the mechanistic understanding was developed through advanced imaging of the materials before and after release, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mapping with Raman spectroscopy, and high-resolution X-ray micro-computed tomography (μ-CT). The release kinetics were modelled using empirical and mechanistic models. From the outcomes of these studies, this thesis builds an understanding of the key material design parameters, including: (1) Polymer(s) selection. The physical and chemical properties of the polymer determined the time for release, ranging from 1 day (for TPS) to 6+ months (for PHBV), and the mechanisms controlling release. Release from TPS occurred by rapid diffusion through and swelling of the hydrophilic polymer matrix. By contrast, PHBV shows promise for long-term release profiles (6+ months), but diffusion through this polymer is so slow that release occurs via other mechanisms. Initially, the release was rapid via the dissolution of surface exposed DCD crystals, confirmed through SEM, resulting in ~20 wt.% release within the first 5 h. Between 5 h and 8 weeks, a further 25 wt.% of the DCD was mobilized as water accessed connected DCD crystals or entered via micro-cracks in the matrix, as determined through high-resolution μ-CT and Raman mapping. A large portion (~50%) of the agrichemical remained encapsulated until the PHBV matrix degraded in soil environments. To increase the rate of matrix diffusion, blending with a more hydrophilic polymer, PCL, were studied. However, the higher affinity between DCD and PCL counter-intuitively resulted in less interconnected DCD crystals, which lead to slower release with increasing PCL content in the blend. (2) The DCD loading. This determined the degree of percolation within the matrix, with a threshold at between 200 and 400 g.kg-1 for DCD-PHBV. Below the percolation threshold, this parameter controls the thickness of the polymer between agrichemical crystals. (3) DCD crystal size. Below the percolation threshold, the fractional release from the surface of the pellet was modulated through the grind size of the agrichemical. (4) DCD pellet size. As identified through mathematical modelling, this parameter can control the fractional release rate and has important consequences on the distribution of pellets within the soil. Understanding these key parameters and the mechanisms that control release allows cost-effective, environmentally friendly material design to increase the effectiveness of nitrogen stabilisers in tropical climates and reduce N pollution. Moreover, the knowledge gained here is relevant for the controlled-release of any soluble, crystalline agrichemical and could be applied for the design of controlled-release fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides.Item Productivity improvements through energy innovation in the Australian sugar industry : final report 2017/011(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2020) Welsh, J; Powell, JWater pumping forms a significant portion of energy use in Australian irrigated agriculture. Water for Australia’s $2 billion annual sugarcane crop is from precipitation and irrigation. As an irrigated industry in a variable climate, energy is a critical input and significant cost component in the sugarcane gross margin. With approximately 90 % of irrigated sugarcane growers accessing the national electricity grid for their energy needs, exposure to some of the highest power prices in the world threatens operating margins and export competitiveness. This project examined various technology components available to reduce the cost of pumping in a micro grid situation: solar PV, diesel gensets, grid energy, wind turbine and lithium-ion batteries. The results found that economic feasibility of incorporating components to lower pumping costs was heavily influenced by Ergon grid connection policies and retail pricing, i.e. export limitations of solar PV, feed-in-tariff rate and the high cost of undertaking ‘user pays’ studies for systems above 39 kW acted as a deterrent. Putting aside grid policy barriers, the study found solar PV to be the most cost-effective technology for this purpose when tested among a range of components. For smaller, grid connected irrigation plant (under 40 kWp), incorporating solar PV systems achieved high investment returns.Item Productivity performance of climatological sub-regions within the Tully Mill area : ASSCT peer-reviewed paper(ASSCT, 2019) Stringer, JK; Skocaj, DM; Rigby, A; Olayemi, M; Everingha, YL; Sexton, JInter-annual climate variability has a significant impact on productivity in the Wet Tropics region. Climate also varies spatially, yet the impact on productivity is less well known. Two distinct climatological sub-regions (northern and southern) have been identified within the Tully mill area based on total annual rainfall and annual average daily radiation. The wetter northern sub-region is characterised by lower radiation, lower temperatures and higher rainfall than in the drier southern sub-region. Mean cane and sugar yields were analysed for the two climate sub-regions using block productivity data obtained from Tully Sugar Limited for 2000 to 2017. After excluding 2011 (Tropical Cyclone Yasi), only farms with 15 or more years of data were included. The impact of spring-summer (SONDJF) rainfall and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phases on cane and sugar yields in the two climate sub-regions was also analysed. On average, the northern, wetter climate sub-region yielded less cane and sugar yield than the southern, drier sub-region. There were significant differences between SONDJF rainfall terciles (dry, normal and wet) and ENSO phases (El Niño, Neutral and La Niña) for cane and sugar yields in the two climate sub-regions. Cane and sugar yields were significantly lower in years experiencing high SONDJF rainfall or in the La Niña phase. This analysis validates the results of the analyses used to derive the two climatological sub-regions in Tully. Improved knowledge of how climatic conditions influence sub-regional productivity performance will assist industry extension programs and on-farm management decisions.Item The fast fluorescence kinetics; a sensitive tool for early detection of water stress in sugarcane : ASSCT peer reviewed paper(ASSCT, 2016) Olsen, DJ; Shafei, R; Botha, FCWater stress is a major constraint for sugarcane production in many regions of the world, including Australia. Sensitive and non-destructive early measurement of the crop response to water stress would be of great value for producers, advisors, and researchers. Chlorophyll-a (Chla) fluorescence is well established as a tool for measurement of photosynthetic efficiency. Changes in the kinetics of Chla fluorescence can provide valuable insight into the structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus and chloroplast membrane integrity. The parameter Fv/Fm is often used to describe the effect of stress on the quantum yield of photosystem two (PSII). In this study the polyphasic OJIP fluorescence transient was used to evaluate the response of the sugarcane photosynthetic electron transport system. Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured on three leaves in the canopy of KQ228A over a five-day water stress period, and the response analysed using the OJIP-test. The results show that several of the parameters that can be derived from the OJIP test are more sensitive and a better reflection of water stress than the Fv/Fm ratio. Evidently PSII is much more sensitive to water stress than photosystem one (PSI). In late stages of stress there are signs of a loss in membrane integrity and a disruption of water splitting in PSII.Item Adoption of practices to mitigate harvest losses : ASSCT peer reviewed paper(ASSCT, 2019) Patane, P; Landers, G; Thompson, M; Nothard, B; Norris, CA; Olayemi, MHarvesting Best Practice (HBP) recommends that harvesters maintain pour rates of 80-90 t/h, depending on make and model, and recommends extractor-fan speed guidelines that ensure minimal cane loss with low extraneous matter (EM). Exceeding the recommended pour rate overloads the cleaning capacity of modern harvesters and increases EM in the cane supply. To attempt to counterbalance the EM issue, it is usual to increase fan speeds above those recommended, resulting in greater cane loss. Use of HBP recommendations across the industry is low and full HBP adoption would substantially increase industry revenue. To address this, 43 replicated harvesting trials and workshops were undertaken in the 2017 harvest season across 12 sugarcane regions between Maryborough and Mossman. The performance of settings recommended by HBP were compared with each harvesting operation’s standard practice by assessing yield, CCS, bin mass, EM, fibre, sugar loss and revenue. To highlight the strong relationship between cane loss and excessive pour rates and fan speeds, treatments with higher pour rates and fan speeds and lower pour rates and fan speeds were also trialled. Results were presented to each harvesting group to inform their decision-making and promote HBP adoption. Cane loss, production and revenue data from 28 replicated and randomised trials were analysed to identify differences between industry standard harvesting practices and those recommended by HBP. We found that harvesters are typically operated at ground and fan speeds that are on average 1 km/h and 95 rpm above those recommended. The higher ground speed delivered an additional 22 t/h of cane into the machine on average but overloaded the cleaning capacity of the harvester. While the higher fan speed helped to remove the additional EM entering the machine, it also removed additional cane through the extractor with most being disintegrated, making it invisible to stakeholders. Testing indicated that mean sugar loss out of the extractor was increased by 0.15 t/ha compared with HBP settings, while there were no significant differences in EM or bin mass. Due to the additional cane being lost, less cane was delivered to the mill per hectare. Mill results across all trials identified that mean cane and sugar yields for the recommended practice were 5 t cane/ha (5.4%) and 0.8 t sugar/ha (5.7%) higher than standard practice. Neither CCS nor fibre levels were significantly different. The increased cane and sugar yields generated by the recommended settings boosted mean total grower revenue by $220/ha, equating to $173/ha after subtracting the additional harvesting costs (including fuel) and levies. Extrapolating these findings across the Australian green-cane-harvested area, full adoption of the recommended practices could deliver an additional 1.3 Mt of cane and 202,000 t of sugar valued at over $86 million for industry ($57 million in additional revenue for growers alone).Item Development of an Intelligent Tool to allow real-time evaluation of harvesting practices as part of a framework for improved harvester payment systems : final report 2016/951(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2019) Norris, CPThe project has resulted in the development of a cane loss indicator which can be a valuable tool to assist the harvester operator to optimise harvester performance as crop conditions change throughout the day. The system differs from previous attempts at cane loss monitors in that it does not attempt to identify individual billet loss, but rather looks at the energy dissipated in the processes of extracting cane and leaf and the effective dissociation of the billets as they are processed by the harvester extractor fans. The relationship between power consumption and actual cane loss utilises both keyboard inputs and parameters measured on the harvester. Data collection for the development of the algorithms and their calibration was undertaken in conjunction with field trials, where conventional cane loss measurement protocols were used to give the base data. Initially manual data collection strategies were utilised, followed by high accuracy data logging. The relationships observed between derived cane loss and measured cane loss in these trials allowed fine tuning of the algorithms, including the “weighting” of different measured inputs. Analysis of all datasets of electronically logged data indicates the repeatability of the cane loss values derived by SCHLOT under typical harvesting conditions to be high and, where variance was observed between the SCHLOT estimate and the field testing protocols, the SCHLOT number could be argued to give the more accurate determination of actual cane loss. In operation, the SCHLOT cane loss monitor gives highly useful feedback to the operator, and this drove significant changes in operating strategies by the harvester operator. The ability to remotely log cane loss in conjunction with other parameters such as harvester speed in near real time offers very significant benefits for the Industry with respect to the implementation of Best Practice Harvesting.Item Adoption of practices to mitigate harvest losses : final report 2016/955(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2020) Patane, P; Landers, G; Thompson, M; Nothard, B; Norris, C; Olayemi, MHarvesting Best Practice (HBP) is predicated by two essential objectives: 1. Determining the critical point where harvesting losses can be minimised and delivered yields improved to achieve the best economic return for the grower and harvesting operation; and 2. Improved cane quality, which is determined by sound billet quality with an acceptable level of Extraneous Matter (EM). Despite significant research into the impact on harvested cane yields of higher harvester pour rates and fan speeds, use of HBP recommendations prior to the commencement of the adoption program across the industry was relatively low. Full HBP adoption across the Australian Sugarcane industry could substantially increase industry revenue with no necessity for horizontal expansion (increase in cane land).Item Measuring the profitability and environmental implications when growers transition to best management practices : final report 2014/015(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2018) Connolly, C; Renouf, M; Poggio, M; Thompson, MThe development of sugarcane Best Management Practices (BMPs) aims to improve the productivity, profitability and sustainability of sugarcane farms. However, there has been limited research that has examined both the economic and environmental implications of BMP adoption on commercial farms in Australia. To alleviate this problem, this project has undertaken a literature review and six case studies on commercial farms in the Wet Tropics analysing the farm profitability and life cycle environmental implications of BMP adoption. After completion, case studies were distributed and extension materials were presented to industry.Item A boiler simulator for improved operator training : final report 2016/001(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2016) Mann, APA boiler simulator training package ready for use by industry has been developed during this project. After some fine tuning to accommodate site specific details and interaction with existing factory control systems (if requested by the sites), the simulator will be ready for use by factories for operator training.Item Sugar industry productivity and data recording spatial data hub for research and extension : final report 2015/045(Sugar Research Australia Limited, 2015) Crossley, RThe Australian sugar industry was an early adopter of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and has considerable spatial data of where the crop has been grown. In some cases, data extends back for more than 20 years. When combined with the productivity data kept by the milling organisations, the data represents a considerable resource that could be used for research projects such as historical productivity analysis and bio-security response. This data was difficult for research providers to access and use, however, as it was fragmented amongst multiple databases and archived files, and was stored in different formats using different codes to indicate varieties and classes. The Sugar Data Hub project collated available data together into a single common spatial database, and enhanced the data by relating its productivity data for previous years regardless of previous block names, and to other data sources such as soils and weather. Although the original concept of the project was to store this data centrally and provide access to that data by agreement from the data owners, privacy concerns precluded this model of distribution. Instead, this data was provided back to the owners for distribution to the research community. Data quality varied across the industry, depending largely on the effort that the mill and farmers/ harvesters took in accurately consigning the bins to the mill. Considerable benefits can be derived from the data collated in this project to the industry, including (a) consistency of data between regions, (b) the ability to access historical production data for a location, and (c) the ability to relate the production data to other spatial information such as soils, agro-climatic regions and GPS data from harvesters.